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Themes: Multiculturalism and Identity

Economic Vulnerability and Ethnicity in Canada’s Metropolitan Workforce: An Exploratory Analysis of Census Classifications

Author(s): Fernando Mata
Date: March, 2010
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Using data drawn from 2006 Census classifications, this paper addresses questions related to the economic vulnerability of workforce members aged 25-54 from ethnic groups residing in the 15 major metropolitan areas of Canada. Using multivariate analysis techniques such as latent class and principal components analysis, it pays special attention to the interrelationships that exist between various indicators of vulnerability comprising labour market, employment, income and poverty-related attributes. The paper identifies the main dimensions of economic vulnerability, lists the most vulnerable groups in the various metropolitan areas, examines gender differentials as well as pinpoints the most important predictors of vulnerability.

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Housing Immigrants and Newcomers in Central Okanagan, BC

Author(s): Carlos Teixeira
Date: March, 2010
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

This study examines the housing experiences of new immigrants and the stresses they face in the Central Okanagan Valley (Vernon, Penticton, and Kelowna), as well as the coping strategies of these groups. The key questions in this study are: (1) What barriers/challenges do new immigrants face in securing affordable rental housing? (2) What strategies are immigrants using to cope? and (3) Does ethnic background and race (the colour of one’s skin) matter in looking for and locating rental housing in small and mid-sized cities?

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Social Capital Formation and Diversity in Canadian Cities: Impacts of Individual and Place Related Characteristics

Author(s): Fernando Mata and Ravi Pendakur
Date: January, 2010
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

We examine the impact of individual and contextual influences on the social capital attributes of residents in different municipalities. Specifically, we look at three major domains underlying social capital—trust (in individuals and institutions), interactions with others, and, membership in organizations. We use structural equation modeling to assess the degree to which the characteristics of individuals and the cities where they live may affect scores in these three domains.

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Social Capital and the Labour Market Process among New Generation Youth from Visible Minority Families

Author(s): Miu Chung Yan, Ph.D., Sean Lauer, Ph.D., Sherman Chan, MSC, RSW, CQSW
Date: February, 2009
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the actual job searching experiences of new generation youth from visible minority immigrant families, what difficulties do they encounter, and what resources do they draw on to adapt to the job market? What values, goals, and future expectations do they hold?

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The Impact of Security Based Racial Profiling of Muslims

Author(s): Gova Alnoor and Kurd Rahat
Date: October, 2008
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

The overarching question to our participants was: “Has the current government national security apparatus caused overt suspicion upon the activities of yourself or those you know?”

To gain a sense of how participants understand racial profiling, researchers used eight guiding questions, modifying them when needed, to allow participants a wide range of entry points through which their narrative could take shape.

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Enclaves, peer effects and student learning outcomes in British Columbia

Author(s): Jane Friesen and Brian Krauth
Date: September, 2008
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Does attending school with more peers from a student’s own ethno-cultural background improve or hinder their academic progress?

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Exploring Immigrant Women's Fears of Criminal Victimization

Author(s): Wendy Chan
Date: September, 2008
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do immigrant women understand their fear of crime? What factors contribute to their fears? How do these fears influence their daily routines and what types of strategies do immigrant women employ to remain safe?

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Immigrant residential geographies and the “spatial assimilation” debate in Canada, 1997–2006

Author(s): Pablo Mendez
Date: September, 2008
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

The paper critically reviews literature published between 1997 and 2006 on immigrant residential geographies in Canada, to assess recent contributions to our understanding of the dynamic relationship between socio-economic attainment and the residential location of immigrants.

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Canada’s Visible Minority Population: 1967-2017

Author(s): Andrew Cardozo and Ravi Pendakur
Date: August, 2008
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

The goals of this paper are to examine the changing place of visible minorities in Canada within the context of the demographic, social and economic changes and to highlight the related policy initiatives which have occurred over the last four decades.

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An introductory look at the academic trajectories of ESL students

Author(s): Bruce Garnett & Charles Ungerleider
Date: February, 2008
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do the academic trajectories of ESL youth vary by ethno-cultural background and English language proficiency? What is the interaction between these two background factors?

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Community Context and Civic Participation in Immigrant Communities

Author(s): Douglas Baer
Date: February, 2008
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do levels of civic engagement among first-generation immigrants compare across immigrant groups? Are immigrants more likely or less likely to become involved in voluntary organizations if they live in a community with higher proportions of recent immigrants from the same country of origin?

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“It’s a War on Love”: Intermarriage in Vancouver, British Columbia’s Jewish Community

Author(s): Sara L. Jackson
Date: October, 2007
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How does intermarriage shape the geographies of belonging in Vancouver’s Jewish community?

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Changing the Mind of the City: The Role of the Hastings Institute / EEO in Building Multicultural Readiness in Vancouver's Host Society

Author(s): Samara Brock
Date: May, 2007
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Do municipally-based cross-cultural training programs like those offered by the Hastings Institute/ EEO offer an effective approach to helping Canadian cities prepare for immigration and greater cultural diversity?

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Surveying Multiculturalism Research: Metropolis Working Papers 1996-2007

Author(s): Lauren Hunter
Date: May, 2007
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the research findings on multiculturalism produced by the Metropolis Working Paper Series?

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Multiculturalism “On the Ground”: The Social Geography of Immigrant and Visible Minority Populations in Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver, Projected to 2017

Author(s): Daniel Hiebert, Nadine Schuurman, and Heather Smith
Date: April, 2007
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

To what degree are newcomers and members of visible minority groups ghettoized in Canadian cities? More precisely, is there a correspondence between the landscapes of immigrant/visible minority groups and areas of poverty in Canadian metropolitan areas? Is the tendency for residential clustering increasing or diminishing? What can we expect to see in the near future?

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Multiculturalism: A Canadian Defence

Author(s): David Ley
Date: March, 2007
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How valid are recent critiques of multiculturalism with regard to segregation and the emergence of subversive political activities? If multiculturalism is not behind these issues, what other factors might be at work?

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Vancouver’s Newest Chinese Diaspora: Settlers or ‘Immigrant Prisoners’?

Author(s): Sin Yih Teo
Date: January, 2007
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What kinds of settlement challenges are faced by recent skilled immigrants from the People’s Republic of China (PRC)? What strategies and attitudes are adopted to meet these challenges? How do early settlement experiences affect how immigrants decide whether to stay in Canada or move to another location?

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Why do Immigrants from Hong Kong to Canada Stay or Leave?

Author(s): Nuowen Deng
Date: January, 2007
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Why do some recent Chinese immigrants from Hong Kong choose to return to Hong Kong while others choose to stay in Canada? What differences are there between the ‘stayer’ and ‘returnee’ groups in terms of demographics, education, income, motivation and satisfaction?

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Social Relations and Remittances: Evidence from Canadian Micro Data

Author(s): Don J. DeVoretz and Florin Vadean
Date: December, 2006
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Are remittances to relatives and friends (payments sent by immigrant workers to their home countries) a part of normal life for immigrants? What difference in remittance behaviour is there between different population groups? What are the different motivations to remit?

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Bridging the Gap in Social Services for Immigrants: A Community-Based Holistic Approach

Author(s): Shibao Guo
Date: April, 2006
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What role do ethnic organizations such as SUCCESS (The United Chinese Community Enrichment Services Society) play in helping immigrants with their settlement and adaptation in a new society?

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Toward Minority Group Rights and Inclusive Citizenship for Immigrants: The Role of a Voluntary Organization in Vancouver

Author(s): Shibao Guo
Date: November, 2005
Source:

Research Question:

What has been the role of SUCCESS (the United Chinese Community Enrichment Services Society) in building a support and citizenship community for Chinese immigrants in Vancouver?

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Chinese Immigrants in Vancouver: Quo Vadis?

Author(s): Shibao Guo and Don J. DeVoretz
Date: October, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the underlying forces that influence Chinese immigrants to leave or stay after their arrival in Canada? How is the decision affected by settlement and adaptation experiences in Vancouver?

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I Pledge Allegiance To… Flexible Citizenship and Shifting Scales of Belonging

Author(s): Katharyne Mitchell and Walter Parker
Date: October, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do young people imagine and experience patriotism? How should schools think about civic education?

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Iranians in Vancouver: ‘Legible People’/Irredeemable Others/Migrants

Author(s): Dan Swanton
Date: October, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do we come to know about Iranian migrants in Vancouver? What do different ‘stories’ about Iranian migrants tell us?

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Recreational Participation among Ethnic Minorities and Immigrants in Canada and the Netherlands

Author(s): Amanda Aizlewood, Pieter Bevelander and Ravi Pendakur
Date: October, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What determines recreational activity among minority groups? Are there differences between minority group participation and that of the majority population? What might be causing these differences?

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A Sociocultural and Critical Analysis of Educational Policies and Programs for Minority Youth in British Columbia

Author(s): June Beynon, Linda Larocque, Roumiana Ilieva and Diane Dagenais
Date: June, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the implications of Canada’s official federal policies of bilingualism and multiculturalism, the British Columbia Multiculturalism Act (1993) and the British Columbia Language Education Policy (1995) on educational programs available to immigrant and minority youth in British Columbia? How might equity be achieved?

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Immigrants’ Attitudes towards Self-Employment: The Significance of Ethnic Origin, Rural and Urban Background and Labour Market Context

Author(s): Harald Bauder
Date: June, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Is the popular image of an immigrant with a high level of ‘entrepreneurial spirit’ based in fact? Are immigrants’ attitudes to entrepreneurship and business practice related to origin, labour market circumstances at the place of settlement, or Canada’s immigration procedure?

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Migration and the Demographic Transformation of Canadian Cities: The Social Geography of Canada’s Major Metropolitan Centres in 2017

Author(s): Daniel Hiebert
Date: June, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What will be the immigrant and visible minority composition of Canada’s three largest metropolitan areas in 2017? What problems could arise? How might policy deal with these issues?

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Ethnic identity and the labour market

Author(s): Krishna Pendakur and Ravi Pendakur
Date: May, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How does ethnic identity affect labour market behaviour?

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Visible Minorities and Aboriginals in Vancouver’s Labour Market

Author(s): Krishna Pendakur
Date: May, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Has the increase in visible minority and Aboriginal populations in Vancouver produced a more equitable labour market for these groups?

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Visible Minorities in Canada’s Workplaces: A Perspective on the 2017

Author(s): Krishna Pendakur
Date: May, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What is the future of Canada’s ethnically diverse labour market in the face of predicted population change? What will be the challenges and opportunities?

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Assigning Marginality: The Case of an ‘ESL/Learning Disabled’ Student

Author(s): Kelleen Toohey
Date: January, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How is a child’s identity formed in the context of ESL instruction and a learning disability? How does classroom interaction affect identity?

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Negotiating Belonging: Bordered Spaces and Imagined Communities in Vancouver, Canada

Author(s): Gillian Creese
Date: January, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do minorities achieve a sense of belonging in multicultural Canada?

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Representations of Language among Multilingual Youth in Two Canadian Cities

Author(s): Diane Dagenais and Patricia Lamarre
Date: January, 2005
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How is multilingualism experienced by young people in Canada? What kind of values do young people put on the languages they speak?

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An exploration of the Korean-Canadian Community in Vancouver

Author(s): Min-Jung Kwak
Date: July, 2004
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the characteristics of Korean settlement and economic development in Vancouver?

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Attitudes Towards Work: Ethnic Minorities and Immigrant Groups in Vancouver

Author(s): Harald Bauder
Date: July, 2004
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How valid are managerial perceptions of the work attitudes of ethnic minority immigrants?

 

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Colour My World: Has the Majority-Minority Earnings Gap Changed Over Time?

Author(s): Krishna Pendakur and Ravi Pendakur
Date: May, 2004
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Has the gap between majority and minority earnings changed over time?

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Global Minds, Local Bodies: Kosovar Transnational Connections Beyond British Columbia

Author(s): Kathy Sherrell and Jennifer Hyndman
Date: May, 2004
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Is transnationalism different for refugees than for other classes of immigrants? What are the transnational links amongst the Kosovar refugee group in Canada? What are the implications for settlement and integration?

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The Quest for an Inclusive City: An Exploration of Sri Lankan Tamil Experience of Integration in Toronto and Vancouver

Author(s): Leonie Sandercock with Leslie Dickout and Ranja Winkler
Date: May, 2004
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the barriers to integration in Canada? How are barriers in relation to citizenship, participation, social policy and use of space experienced by Sri Lankan Tamils in Toronto and Vancouver?

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Ethnicity and Social Capital in Canada

Author(s): Don J. DeVoretz, Sergiy Pivnenko, & Morton Beiser
Date: April, 2004
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the effects of high levels of ethnic diversity on social capital in Canadian communities?

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Commemoration, Redress and Reconciliation in the Integration of Immigrant Communities: The Cases of Japanese Canadians and Japanese-Americans

Author(s): Rosa Sevy and John Torpey
Date: February, 2004
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Do programs of redress (such as reparations) improve the integration of previously marginalized groups?

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Immigration, Place and Health: South Asian Women’s Accounts of Health, Illness and Everyday Life

Author(s): Isabel Dyck
Date: February, 2004
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the health needs and experiences of immigrant women in British Columbia? How does the management of health and illness feature in women’s everyday lives?

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Integrating Immigrants: The Challenge for Cities, City Governments and the City-Building Professions

Author(s): Leonie Sandercock
Date: November, 2003
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How can citizens of diverse cities be helped to live successfully alongside one another? What kinds of planning and what forms of urban governance could have the greatest impact on exclusion and marginality?

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Rethinking Multiculturalism for the 21st Century

Author(s): Leonie Sandercock
Date: October, 2003
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What does it mean to be ‘at home’ in an increasingly globalized world? How might we live together in the face of cultural difference? What might a multicultural project for 21st century cities look like?

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Mobile Modernities: One South Asian Family Negotiates Immigration, Gender and Class

Author(s): Margaret Walton-Roberts and Geraldine Pratt
Date: September, 2003
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do class, gender and sexuality affect the experiences of the modern Indian immigrant family? What is the nature of ‘modernity’ in relation to immigrant settlement in Canada?

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The Hong Kong Chinese in Vancouver

Author(s): David W. Edgington, Michael A. Goldberg, Thomas Hutton
Date: April, 2003
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the consequences for Vancouver of large-scale immigration and flows of finance from Hong Kong?

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Are Immigrants Welcome? Introducing the Vancouver Community Studies Survey

Author(s): Daniel Hiebert
Date: March, 2003
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What were the public’s experiences of, and attitudes towards, immigrant settlement in Vancouver between 2001-02? How welcoming was Vancouver to immigrants?

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Uneven Globalization: Neoliberal Regimes, Immigration and Multiculturalism in Australia, Canada and New Zealand

Author(s): Daniel Hiebert, Jock Collins and Paul Spoonley
Date: February, 2003
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Why have Australia, Canada and New Zealand adopted very different immigration policies when they are aiming to fix the same problems?

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‘Do You Know Your Language?’ How teachers of Punjabi and Chinese Ancestries Construct their Family Languages in their Personal and Professional Lives

Author(s): Julie Beynon, Roumiana Ilieva, Marela Dichupa, Shemina Hirji
Date: January, 2003
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do minority teachers construct and represent their family language identities? What are the implications in the workplace?

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Social and Cultural Impacts of Immigration: An Examination of the Concept of ‘Social Cohesion’ with Implications for British Columbia

Author(s): Johanna L. Waters and Sin Yih Teo
Date: January, 2003
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What have been the social and cultural impacts of immigration to British Columbia over the past three decades?

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Between Homes: Displacement and Belonging for Second Generation Filipino-Canadian Youths

Author(s): Geraldine Pratt
Date: June, 2002
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do young Filipino-Canadians experience their identities, and to what extent do they feel they belong in Canada and/or the Philippines?

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Becoming Canadian? Girls, Home and School and Renegotiating Feminine Identity

Author(s): Isabel Dyck and Arlene Tigar Mclaren
Date: March, 2002
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do immigrant girls in suburban Vancouver develop their identities?

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Modernization and Global Restructuring of Women’s Work: Border-Crossing Stories of Iranian Women

Author(s): Parin Dossa
Date: March, 2002
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Why are Iranian women in Canada unable to find work in their professional area of expertise?

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Multiculturalism and Local Government in Greater Vancouver

Author(s): David W. Edgington and Thomas A. Hutton
Date: March, 2002
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the multicultural policies and programs used by metropolitan Vancouver’s municipal councils? How committed are local councils to multiculturalism, and do they provide local services that are equitable and accessible for all residents?

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Cultural Barriers to Labour Market Integration: Immigrants from South Asia and the Former Yugoslavia

Author(s): Harald Bauder and Emilie Cameron
Date: February, 2002
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

Why do many immigrants suffer from occupational downgrading? How do migration, culture and employment expectations shape labour market outcomes?

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Teachers of Chinese Ancestry: The Interaction of Identities and Professional Roles

Author(s): June Beynon, Roumiana Ileva and Marela Dichupa
Date: December, 2001
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do Canadian teachers of Chinese ancestry perceive the nature of their work, and how do they view their identities and the relationship between their roles and identities?

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Teachers of Punjabi Sikh Ancestry: The Perceptions of their Roles in the British Columbia Education System

Author(s): Shemina Hirji and June Beynon
Date: November, 2001
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do teachers of Punjabi Sikh ancestry in the British Columbian public education system perceive their role?

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The German Immigrant Church in Vancouver: Service Provision and Identity Formation

Author(s): Laura Beattie and David Ley
Date: October, 2001
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What role does the immigrant church play in the process of acculturation in Canada?

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Narrative Mediation of Conventional and New Paradigms of ‘Mental Health’: Reading the Stories of Immigrant Iranian Women

Author(s): Parin Dossa
Date: August, 2001
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How can storytelling help us understand issues of immigrant mental health and emotional well-being? What kinds of medicalization processes are Iranian women in Canada subject to?

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Assimilation, Cultural Pluralism and Social Exclusion among Ethno-Cultural Groups in Vancouver

Author(s): Daniel Hiebert and David Ley
Date: February, 2001
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do the experiences of Vancouver immigrants from Europe compare with those from outside Europe? Are their experiences best described in terms of ‘assimilation’ or ‘cultural pluralism’?

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The Visible Minority Category and Urban Analysis

Author(s): Harald Bauder
Date: February, 2001
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the implications of using fixed racial and ethnic categories (such as the concept of ‘visible minorities’) in urban analysis?

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‘Adjusting the Colour Bars’: Media Representation of Ethnic Minorities under Australian and Canadian Multiculturalisms

Author(s): Kevin Dunn and Minelle Matani
Date: January, 2001
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do the media represent certain ethno-cultural groups in Australia and Canada?

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Urban Governance, Multiculturalism and Citizenship in Sydney and Vancouver

Author(s): David W. Edgington, Bronwyn Hanna, Thomas Hutton and Susan Thompson
Date: January, 2001
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How well has municipal planning responded to cultural diversity? How multiculturally ‘ready’ are local governments in Sydney and Vancouver?

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Cosmopolitanism at the Local Level: Immigrant Settlement and the Development of Transnational Neighbourhoods

Author(s): Daniel Hiebert
Date: September, 2000
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the day-to-day dynamics of living in cosmopolitan neighbourhoods? What is the relationship between transnationalism and cosmopolitanism?

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Job Mobility and Promotion in the Federal Public Service

Author(s): Ravi Pendakur, Fernando Mata, Stan Lee and Natalie Dole
Date: May, 2000
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the odds of equity group members obtaining a job shift or promotion as compared to white males working in the federal public service?

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A Case-Study of Multilingualism and Educational Choice in Immigrant Families

Author(s): Diane Dagenais and Catherine Berron
Date: July, 1999
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the language practices of multilingual families, and how do these families share and transmit their language and education values?

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Health Systems Renewal: ‘Writing In’ Cultural Plurality

Author(s): J. Anderson, S. Tang and C. Blue
Date: May, 1999
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How is ‘culture’ understood in health care, and how is this taken up in the restructuring of Canada’s health care system?

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Immigration, Neighbourhood Change and Racism: Immigrant Reception in Richmond, B.C.

Author(s): John Rose
Date: May, 1999
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How have long-term residents responded to physical and cultural changes in Richmond since 1986?

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The Changing Role of Administrators in Ethnically Diverse Schools

Author(s): Linda LaRocque
Date: April, 1999
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do school principals in ethnically diverse schools experience their role?

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Hindus in Canada

Author(s): Harold Coward
Date: February, 1999
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What are the experiences of Hindus in urban Canada?

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Impacts of immigration on education in British Columbia: An Analysis of Efforts to Implement Policies of Multiculturalism in Schools

Author(s): Marvin Wideen and Kathleen A. Barnard
Date: January, 1999
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How successful have the educational policies of British Columbia been in meeting educational challenges related to increased diversity in the classroom?

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Immigrant Experiences in Greater Vancouver: Focus Group Narratives

Author(s): Daniel Hiebert
Date: September, 1998
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How do immigrants in Vancouver experience family life, employment and their relationships with Canadian society?

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The Changing Social Geography of Immigrant Settlement in Vancouver

Author(s): Daniel Hiebert
Date: September, 1998
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

How have the last few decades of immigrant settlement changed Vancouver’s social geography?

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Careers in Teaching: Participation Rates and Perceptions of Two Minority Groups in British Columbia

Author(s): June Beynon and Kelleen Toohey
Date: January, 1998
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What affects the decisions of Chinese and Punjabi Sikh Canadians to enrol, or not enrol, in teacher education at university?

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East Asian Immigrant Entrepreneurs in Vancouver: Provincial Preference and Ethnic Strategy

Author(s): Karl Froschauer
Date: January, 1998
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What strategies have East Asian immigrant entrepreneurs used to overcome the challenges of setting up a new business in Vancouver? How successful have these strategies been? Have these strategies matched provincial preferences for investments?

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The Colour of Work: Labour Market Segmentation in Montréal, Toronto and Vancouver, 1991

Author(s): Daniel Hiebert
Date: March, 1997
Source: Metropolis BC

Research Question:

What is the extent of ethnic and gender segmentation in the labour markets of Montréal, Toronto and Vancouver? What is the nature of this segmentation, and how is this segmentation distributed geographically?

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